【2013年春季】文化人类学课程第六讲
(2013-06-11 23:04:03) 转载▼
[2013年春季] 文化人类学课程(第六讲)
亲族实践: 文化语境中的性、爱、婚姻与家庭
要点
l Kinship (family, marriage, gender) forming the basis of the discipline;
l 亲族研究在人类学学科中的地位,好比哲学中的逻辑,或者说美术中的人体画.
文化与生育/再生产(reproduction/re-production)
l Every human population, at all times, has had culturally constructed ways to either promote or limit population growth.
l Three general modes of reproduction:
-the foraging mode existed for most of human pre-history and had low rates of population growth.
-the agricultural mode emerged with permanent settlements had increased birth rates.
-industrialized mode (demographic transition)
l Anthropologists have done much less research on reproduction than on production.
田野研究中探讨性话题和生育遭遇的困难
l uality involves private, secret beliefs and behaviors. The ethics of participant observation disallow intimate observation or participation, data can only be obtained indirectly.
Ex.“How many times did you have intercourse last year?”
l Malinowski’s first anthropology study of uality based on fieldwork in the Trobriands.
-ual lived of children; ual techniques; love magic; erotic dreams; husband-wife jealousy, etc.
Note: Since the late 1980s, anthropologists have paid a lot of attention to the study of uality, given the increase of STDS and HIV/AIDS.
难以启齿但非常重要的问题
When to Begin Having Intercourse?
l Biologically speaking, ual intercourse between a fertile female and a fertile make is normally required for human reproduction.
l Cultures socialize children about the appropriate time to begin ual intercourse. Guidelines for initiating ual intercourse differ by gender, class, race, and ethnicity.
l Cross-culturally, rules more strictly forbid premarital ual activity of girls than of boys.
l In some cultures, a high value is placed on a woman becoming pregnant soon after she reaches menarche, making “teenage pregnancy” a desired condition instead of a social problem (as perceived by many experts in the US and China).
How often should one have intercourse?
l The wide range in frequency of ual intercourse confirms the role of culture in shaping ual desire.
l A study of reported intercourse frequency for Euro-Americans in the US and Hindus in India revealed that Indians had intercourse far less frequently (less than twice a week) than the Euro-Americans did (two to three times a week) in all age groups.
l Fertility is higher in India than many other parts of the world where religiously based restrictions on ual intercourse do not exist.
Fertility Decision Making and Fertility Control
l Family-level
l National-level
l Global-level
l Family planning programs of many types
l Induced-abortion
l The new reproduction technologies
性爱与婚姻
l What is marriage?
-control of ual relations
-rule of ual access
-incest taboo
-endogamy and exogamy
l What is the distinction between marriage and mating?
l Why is marriage a cultural universal?
人类学者如何定义婚姻?
No single definition of marriage is adequate to account for all of the diversity found in marriages cross-culturally.
A non-ethnocentric definition of marriage is a relationship between one or more men (male or female) and one or more women (female or male) who are recognized by society as having a continuing claim to the right of ual access to one another.
Although in many societies husbands and wives live together as members of the same household, this is not the true in all societies.
Most marriages around the world tend to involve a single spouse (monogamy). Yet most societies permit and regard as most desirable, marriage of an individual to multiple spouses (polygamy).
英国人类学家李奇(Edmund Leach)认为婚姻通常有如下要素:
l Social identity of children
l (who is the legal father or legal mother ?)
l Regulating ual intercourse
l Rights to spouse’s labor / ual division of labor
l Rights over spouse’s property
l Joint fund of property & rules of inheritance
l Establishing relations between spouses & their relatives, or relations of affinity
社会、文化、法律对婚姻实践的构建
Perspectives from bio-anthropology
l Among primates, the human female is unusual in her ability in ual activity whenever she wants to or whenever her culture tells her it is appropriate, irrespective of whether or not she is fertile.
l Although such activity may reinforce social bonds between individuals, competition for ual ual access can be disruptive, so every society has rules that govern such access.
l * Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass those genes on.
Perspectives from bio-anthropology
哈佛生物人类学家Wrangham 的Demonic Males 揭示的男性暴力的”生物学真相”
l Whatever their virtues, men are more violent than women. Why do men kill, rape, and wage war, and what can be done about it? Drawing on the latest discoveries about human evolution and about our closest living relatives, the great apes, Demonic Males offers some startling new answers to these questions.
婚姻与交配行为的差别
marriage vs. mating
l All animals mate (form a ual bond with individuals of the opposite ). In some species, the bond last no longer than a single act. While some animals mate with a single individual others mate with several.
l Only marriage, however, is backed by social, legal, and economic forces.
l Mating is biological, marriage is cultural.
性的文化规范
Cultural Regulations of uality: Permissiveness vs. Restrictiveness
l Premarital
-Preparation for later marriage roles; given complete instructions in all forms of ual expression; trial marriages.
-Disgrace; responsibility of guarding the chastity and reputation of daughters of marriageable age as a burden of the mother; display of blood-stained sheets as test of pre-marital chastity
l in marriage
- Positions & patterns; privacy; occasions
l Extramarital
-not uncommon in most societies; a difference between the restrictive code and actual practice; double standard (gender bias); rumors
l Homouality
Why is marriage (almost) universal?
l The need to regulate ual relations so that competition over ual access does not introduce a disruptive, combative influence into society.
l The specific form marriage takes is related to who has rights to offspring that normally result from ual intercourse, as well as how property is distributed.
The near universality of incest taboo
l INCEST refers to ual relations with a close relative (parents/children/siblings
l The incest taboo is a cultural universal (which can be loosely translated as 乱伦)
l What constitutes incest varies widely from culture to culture and a true convincing explanation is yet to be advanced.
l Ex. Difficulties of defining DIRT.
对于”乱伦禁忌”的文化解释
Explaining INCEST Taboo
l Instinctive Horror
l This theory argues that Homo sapiens are genetically programmed to avoid incest.
l This theory has serious flaws.
-Cultural universality does not necessarily entail a genetic basis (e.g., fire making).
-If genetically programmed, a formal incest taboo would be unnecessary.
-Cannot explain why in some societies people can marry their cross cousins (children of one’s brother and sister) but not their parallel cousins (children of two brothers and two sisters).
INCEST Taboo
Biological Degeneration
l Incest taboo developed in response to abnormal offspring born from incestuous unions.
l A decline in fertility and survival does accompany brother-sister mating across several generations.
l However, human marriage patterns are based on specific cultural beliefs rather than universal concerns about biological degeneration several generations in the future.
-Neither instinctive horror nor biological degeneration can explain the very widespread custom of marrying cross cousins.
-Fears about degeneration cannot explain why ual unions between parallel cousins but not cross cousins are so often tabooed.
Explaining the Taboo
Attempt and Contempt:
l Malinowski (and Freud) argued that the incest taboo originated to direct ual feelings away from one's family to avoid disrupting the family structure and relations (familiarity increases the chances for attempt).
l The opposite theory argues that people are less likely to be ually attracted to those with whom they have grown up (familiarity breeds contempt). 青梅竹马？
l Ex. Kibbutz in Israel
Kibbutz and the control of ual relations ?
Although children raised together on an Israel kibbutz rarely marry one another, it is not because of any instinctive desire to avoid mating with people who are close.
They marry outside their group because service in the military takes them out of their kibbutz
Royal Incest
* Royal families in widely diverse cultures have engaged in what would be called incest, even in their own cultures.
*The manifest function of royal incest in Polynesia was the necessity of marriage partners having commensurate mana.
* The latent function of Polynesian royal incest was that it maintained the ruling ideology.
* The royal incest, generally, had a latent economic function: it consolidated royal wealth.
Marry out or die out?
l A more accepted argument: the taboo originated to ensure exogamy. Incest taboos force people to create and maintain wide social networks by extending peaceful relations beyond one's immediate group. Incest taboos are seen as an adaptively advantageous cultural construct.
l This argument focuses on the adaptive social results of exogamy, such as alliance formation, not simply on the idea of biological degeneration.
l Incest taboos also function to increase a group's genetic diversity
Perspectives from sociocultural anthropology
l Despite the potentially harmful biological results of systematic inbreeding, human marriage patterns are based on specific cultural beliefs rather than universal concerns about biological degeneration several generations in the future.
Marriage Prohibition in the US
l State laws prohibited the marriage of some relatives (parent-child and sibling marriages; marriages between first cousins)
l Cousin prohibitions were enacted long before the discovery of the genetic mechanism of disease
l Powerful myth based on a discredited social evolutionary theory and contradicted by the results of modern genetic research
l Underlying cultural logic
经济人类学视角中的婚姻实践: 两个群体之间的礼物交易
GIFT
l means present in English
l means poison in German
l means married in the Scandinavian languages.
Q: any significance for kinship analysis?
Marriage as Group Alliance: exchange between “givers and takers”
l One classical anthropology theory defines marriage as the “exchange of gift” between two groups - “wife-givers” and “wife-takers”
l Ideally there is a “balanced exchange between the givers (bride’s family) and the takers (groom’s family)
l Rules of “balanced/expected reciprocity”
l Marriage payment: brideprice/bridewealth/bride service; dowry
l Marriage strategy: hypergamy vs. hypogamy
l Marriage rules: endogamy; exogamy
Endogamy
l Endogamy and exogamy may operate in a single society.
l Endogamy can be seen as functioning to express and maintain social difference, particularly in stratified societies.
l Homogamy is the practice of marrying someone similar to you in terms of background, social status, aspirations, and interests.
Example of Endogamy
-India's caste system.
- It is argued that, although India's varna and America's "races" are historically distinct, they share a caste-like ideology of endogamy.
Caste / casta /jati
(stratification system in South Asia)
Castes = “breeds” or “types”
(“ascribed status”)
1)Brahmans (priests)
2)Kshatriyas ( nobles and warriors)
3)Vaishyas (merchants or skilled artisans)
4)Shudras (common labors)
Harijians (outcasts / untouchables)
Marriage and Jati Hierarchy
Endogamy
(marrying within Jati)
Hypogamy
(marrying “down” hierarchy)
Hypergamy
(marrying “up” hierarchy)
-avoid “ritual pollution”
Other examples of endogamy?
l Religious
Ex. Orthodox Jewish, Muslims (including the Chinese Hui),
l Race/ethnicity
Problems of crosscultural marriages?
l Socioeconomic class
How about homogamy
Marital Rights and Same- Marriage
l Most anthropologists would agree same- marriages are legitimate unions between two individuals because like other kinds of marriage, same- marriage can allocate all of the rights discussed by anthropologist Leach.
l In the U.S., since same- marriage is illegal, same- couples are denied many of these rights (e.g., rights to the labor of the other, over the other's property, relationships of affinity with the other's relatives).
Marital Rights and Same- Marriage
There are ethnographic examples in which same- marriages are culturally sanctioned (e.g., the Nuer, the Azande, the Igbo, berdaches, and the Lovedu).
彩礼与嫁妆
Bridewealth and Dowry
l Particularly in descent-based societies, marriage partners represent an alliance of larger social units.
l Bridewealth is a gift from the husband's kin to the wife's, which stabilizes the marriage by acting as an insurance against divorce.
l Dowry, less common than bridewealth, correlates with low status for women.
l Fertility is often considered essential to the stability of a marriage.
l Polygyny (man taking more than one wife) may be practiced to ensure fertility.
The“marriage”of women to the church
l In Europe, where both men and women inherit family wealth, the “marriage” of women to the church as nuns passed wealth that might otherwise have gone to husbands and offspring to the Church instead.
西方文化语境中对浪漫爱情与(一夫一妻制)婚姻因果关系中的想象,体现在这一童谣中.
Love and (monogamous) Marriage
Love and marriage, love and marriage
They go together like a horse and carriage
This I'll tell you brother
You can't have one without the other
Love and marriage, love and marriage
It's an institute you can't disparage
Ask the local gentry
And they will say it's elementary
Try, try, try to separate them
It's an illusion
Try, try, try, and you will only come
To this conclusion
Love and marriage, love and marriage
They go together like a horse and carriage
Dad was told by mother
You can't have one without the other
Try, try, try to separate them
It's an illusion
Try, try, try, and you will only come
To this conclusion
Love and marriage, love and marriage
They go together like a horse and carriage
Dad was told by mother
You can't have one without the other
Romantic Love and (Monogamous) Marriage
l Typically, anthropologists have overlooked romantic love as a factor in the interpersonal relationships of the people they study, but this has begun to change.
l “There is romantic love in cultures around the world.”
l As motifs of romantic love have become more widespread, globally, it has come to play an increasingly important role in the selection of marriage partners.
l In a survey of ethnographies from 166 cultures, they found what they considered clear evidence that romantic love was known in 147 of them – 87 percent.
l Evidence from tales about lovers, or folklore, that offered love potions or other advice on making someone fall in love.
l While romantic love appears to be a human universal, it is a still an alien idea that in many cultures that such infatuation has anything to do with the choice of a spouse.
Source: Jankowiak and Fischer, A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Romantic Love, Ethnology
作为文化构建产物的浪漫爱情
Romantic Love as a Cultural Construction
l The media propagate popular culture, and images from around the world are creeping into everyday lives.
l Cultural sources are being merged in ways that are forcing the redefinition of identity across the globe.
Divorce
l Divorce is found in many different societies.
- Marriages that are political alliances between groups are harder to break up than marriages that are more individual affairs.
- Payments of bridewealth also discourage divorce.
- Divorce is more common in matrilineal societies as well as societies in which postmarital residence is matrilocal (such as Naxi of SW China)
- Divorce is harder in patrilocal societies as the woman may be less inclined to leave her children who, as members of their father's lineage, would need to stay him.
Divorce in the U.S.
-The U.S. has one of the world's highest divorce rates (a steep rise between 1970 and 1994
-The U.S. has a very large percentage of professional women.
-patterns of residence and family types vary with socioeconomic class (ex. extended families as a response to poverty)
- Americans value independence.
Plural Marriages
l Polygamy
-Illegal in North America and Post-1949 China
-“serial monogamy” in postindustrial societies (multiple marriages and divorces)
l Polygyny (multiple wives)
- Practiced in patriarchal societies (ex. pre-revolutionary China, some African countries and elsewhere in the world)
l Polyandry (multiple husbands)
l Ex. Fraternal polyandry in Tibet (brothers share a wife)
Polygyny vs. Polyandry
Is Polygamy confusing or just a matter of family values?
African Polygyny: Family values and contemporary changes
例:美剧Big Love 与《甄缳》
复习: 儒化/社会化与生命周期
Enculturation/ Socialization and the Life Cycle
l The main agents of SOCIALIZATION (enculturation) – family, school, peer groups, the mass media, and the work (particular attention to gender socialization) .
l The main stages of life cycle identified as:1) infancy; 2)childhood and adolescence, 3) young and mature adulthood, and 4) old age
l Anthropological notions of “social birth” and “social person”
l Social death vs. biological death
Readings:
Jankowiak and Fischer, A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Romantic Love, Ethnology.
M. Wolf, Uterine Families and the Women’s Community.
Philip L. Kilbride African Polygyny: Family values and contemporary changes
人类学视角中的亲族与性别研究
Kinship & Gender
Kinship: a symbolic idiom that refers to biological ties which people use to organize their social lives.
l Kinship and Fieldwork
ex. degrees of “relatedness”
l -Kinship and Biology
ex. mating vs. marriage; births vs. descents; blood metaphor
l -Kinship terms
亲族与政治
Kinship & Politics: Blood is thicker than water
Q：钻戒是否可以认作彩礼的一部分？
人类学意义上的家庭是什么？
l A definition of the family that avoids Western ethnocentrism see it as a group composed of a woman composed of a woman and her dependent children, with at least one adult man joined through marriage or blood relationship.
l The family may take many forms ranging from a married couple with their children (conjugal family) as in North American society to a large group of several brothers and sisters with the sisters’ children (consanguine-al family) as in sw India among the Nayar (the Mosu people of SW China).
l The particular form taken by the family is related to particular social, historical, and ecological circumstances.
功能论的视角：
Functions of family
l Nurturance of children
Nurturing children traditionally has been the adult female’s job, although men also may play a role, and in some societies mane are even more involved with their children than are women.
l Economic Cooperation
Dependence on group living for survival is basic human characteristic. Economic activities of men and women complement each other. An effective way to facilitate economic cooperation between men and women and to provide for a close bond between mother and child is through the establishment of residential groups that include adults of both es.
The role of family from the functionalist perspective (Talcott Parsons)
l Primary socialization (how children learn the cultural norms of the society into which they are born)
l Q: is family the primary socializing agency?
l Personality stabilization (the role family plays in assisting adult family members emotionally).
Family and household
l Households are task-oriented residential units within which economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and implemented.
l Unlike family, the household is universally present. Most households in fact constitute families (family as the core of the household), although other sorts of households may be present as well (e.g., single-parent household in North America).
l Ex 1: Among the Nayar, married men and women are members of separate households, meeting periodically for ual activities.
Family Forms
l Nuclear Family
Married couple + Child(ren)
l Extended Family
Three or more generations
The nuclear family is widespread, but not universal.
Kinship Symbols
The extended family
l A collection of nuclear families, related by ties of blood, that live together in one household (which might include grand parents, mother and father,, brothers and sisters, perhaps an uncle and aunt, and a stray cousin or two
Residence Patterns
l Patrilocal residence:
-a woman goes to live with her husband in the household in which he grew up.
l Matrilocal residence:
-a man leaves the family he grew up to go live with his wife in her parents’ household.
l Neolocal residence:
-a married couple forms a household in a separate location. This occurs where the independence of the nuclear family is emphasized.
Industrialization and Family Organization
l North America
-Neolocal residence pattern
-patterns of residence and family types vary with socioeconomic class (ex. extended families as a response to poverty)
- The divorce rate rose steeply between 1970 and 1994
Family units in complex societies
l Families are changing to include stepparenting, “reconstituted families,” gay and lesbian families, single-parenting, divorce, and separation.
l Each of these dynamics represents a shift away from the traditional notion the nuclear family and calls attention to transformations that can best be understood in relations to the times in which they are emerged.
Gay/lesbian family in the US
l Alternative to traditional nuclear family through adoption or the new reproductive technologies.
Industrialization, State, and Family Planning: China
l Single Child Family Policy / Birth Control
-Biological anthropologists vs. Sociocultural anthropologists
l Demographic Transition :
-low infant mortality rate
-low birth rate
人类学家关注人口增长的两个层面：
l 首先，人类学家对于人类生育行为(包括伴侣/夫妻对于育儿数量的选择和控制)，采用的是一种整体性(holism)研究角度，即把生育行为放在人们日常生活的整个系统中加以考察。对于特定社会语境中的行为模式的分析，能使我们看到某 一地区的出生率往往与地方条件尤其是经济因素有关。
l 人类学家还通 过在小型社区进行深入细致的田野研究来找出第三世界地区婴儿出生率偏高的成因。
发展中国家的高出生率问题
l 比起尼日利亚或萨尔瓦多的任何普通家庭，北美地区处于平均收入水平的家庭，应该有能力养育更多的孩子。然而事实上，北美平均每个家庭的育儿数量仅为两到三个。而在尼日利亚等经济欠发达地区，家户平均育儿多达六七个，而且已经成为家常便饭。
l 能否想当然地做出以下结论：“穷国”的育龄夫妇拒绝计划生育，无视多生多育对国家的教育和卫生系统带来的负担，是落后和无知的表现。
人口与环境的关系、文化价值观、信仰体系和生育实践对于生育率的深远影响
l 在北美，除了针对育儿的代价和收益(cost and benefit)的经济层面的考虑之外，还有一系列其他因素，在影响和促使配偶，使之做出限制家庭规模的决定。这些因素可以是：与“理想”家庭规模相关的文化规范和社会期望；与职业选择有关的空间流动；妇女就业、职业目标和怀孕生育时间的“理性”选择；儿童成长过程对于社会资源的需求和耗费。
人口与环境的关系、文化价值观、信仰体系和生育实践对于生育率的深远影响
l 在非工业化社会，孩童作为劳力的对于增加家庭收入和未来养老而言，具有相当高的潜在价值。除此之外，育龄夫妇愿意多生多育，还出于对下列因素的考虑：婴儿的高死亡率；扩大型家庭(多代同堂的居住模式)中每个成员所具备的分担抚养幼儿的能力；比发达国家低得多的儿童养育费用；妇女育儿责任与赚钱养家义务之间相辅相成的关系。
摘自《发展人类学概论》
Readings :
M. Wolf, Uterine Families and the Women’s Community.
P. L. Kilbride, African Polygyny: Family Values and Contemporary Changes
Rubie Watson, The Named and the Nameless.
V. Fong, China’s One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters
Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Gender Dynamics
文化人类学的性别观
l Know the difference between and gender and why gender is a cultural construction (gender roles vs. gender stereotypes）
l The nature of gender relations in different societies
l How homoual intercourse functions and is sanctioned in particular local social contexts.
l How ualities and gender vary across cultures.
l Understand the relationship between patriarchy and violence against women
l How industrialism has affected gender
The cultural /social construction of gender
l refers to biological differences (ex. penis, vagina, breasts, etc)
l Gender refers to the cultural construction of male and female characteristics.
Ex.Bororo Male Dancers
Key Terms
l Gender roles the tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the es (ex. “man the hunter and woman the gatherer”)
l Gender stereotypes oversimplified but strongly held ideas of the characteristics of men and women.“Frailty, thy name is woman!” (Hamlet)
l Gender stratification describes an unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom) between men and women, reflecting their different positions in social hierarchy.
Recurrent Gender Patterns
l Cross-culturally the subsistence contributions of men and women are roughly equal.
l In domestic activities, female labor dominates, while in extra-domestic activities, male labor dominates.
l Women are the primary caregivers, but men often play a role.
ual Orientation and GENDER
All human activities, including ual preferences, are to some extent learned and malleable.
ual orientation refers to a person’s habitual ual attractions and activities: Heterouality refers to the ual preference for members of the opposite .
Homouality refers to the ual preference for members of the same . Biuality refers to the ual preference for members of both es. Auality refers to indifference toward or lack of attraction to either .
Cultural Variation of ual Norms
l There tends to be greater cross-cultural acceptance of homouality than of masturbation.
l Flexibility in human ual expression is part of our primate heritage. Masturbation exists among chimpanzee and other primates. Homoual behavior exists among chimpanzee and other primates.
l uality is a matter that culture and environment determine and limit.
Patriarchy and Violence
l Patriarchal Societies
- The male role in warfare is highly valued. Violent acts against women are common and include dowry murders (India), female infanticide, etc.
- Domestic Violence
Family violence is a worldwide problem. Abuse of women is more common in societies where women are separated from their supportive kin ties (e.g., patrilineal, patrifocal, and patrilocal societies).
l Gender and Industrialism
- Early American Industrialism
The public-domestic dichotomy as it is manifested in America ("a woman’s place...") is a relatively recent development. Initially, women and children worked in factories, but were supplanted by immigrant men who were willing to work for low wages.
This shift coincided with associated beliefs about the unfitness of women for labor.
l Since World War II, the number of women in the work force has increased dramatically, driven in large part by industry’s search for cheap, educated labor, in combination with technology mitigating the effect of notions about appropriate work for women.
Analyzing Gender Inequality
l Functionalist vs. Feminist approaches
l Biological determinism vs. cultural/social constructivism
* Feminist Approaches
Women in pre-revolutionary (traditional) China
l foot-binding
l “Namelessness” and propertylessness (Rubie Watson 1986)
l arrange marriage *commodification of women
l women’s role as MOTHER (of a male heir)
l “uterine family” (Margery Wolf)
The Named and the Nameless: Gender and Personhood
l What is in a name?
l The cultural significance of naming practices in China (and the rest of the world)?
l What does this have to do with gender difference?
l How relevant is the story for understanding naming practices in the Chinese-speaking world?
*The social construction of womanhood
民族志经典案例之一：
Inequality among Brothers (R. Watson 1985)
l Despite a patrilineal ideology that extols the virtues of brotherhood and equality, Dr Watson shows that the lineage has in fact played a central role in the formation, development and maintenance of an élite class of landlords and merchants, who, even though their economic importance has now declined, continue to exert political control. Dr Watson examines the dynamics of interclass relations within a single lineage and shows how these relations have been transformed as a consequence of the growth of wage labor.
民族志经典案例之二：
Ancestor Worship in Hong Kong (research by Harvard anthropologist Watson in the 1970s)
Descendants of Man lineage（文氏宗族）are gathered at tomb of their ancestor. Roast pigs are presented at the tomb. The local school master is reading a annual report to the ancestor (in classical Chinese) detailing the accounts of the founder’s estate (land and property 祖产)
田野即景：Pork division 分猪肉
Major lineages in the HK New Territories share pork among the male descendants of key ancestors. Elders of the Man lineage carefully weigh and divide shares of meat “paid for” by the ancestor himself (who was “alive” socially through the mechanism of his ancestral estate).
Ancestor Worship Among the Man
l The (Chinese) lineage model implies clear and unambiguous rules of membership, collective rituals to celebrate illustrious ancestors, and the construction of elaborate ancestral halls that hold the carved wooden tablets of individual (male) ancestors. Strict rules of membership are necessary because the Man （文）, like their counterparts in the New Territories, enjoy the economic benefits conferred by the collective ownership of property – in San Tin’s case former paddy fields that have enormous development potential (hence the secrecy regarding the exact number of recognized members).
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State ( Engles 1884)
l The emancipation of women will only be possible when woman can take part in production on a large, social scale, and domestic work no longer claims but an insignificant amount of her time. And now only now has become possible through modern large-scale industry, which does not merely permit the employment of female labor…but positively demand it, while it also tends toward ending private domestic labor by changing it … into a public industry.
The Mosuo: A Matrilineal Society
l The Mosuo of SW China are strongly matrilineal. The women in the family are blood relatives of one another, and the men are their brothers. Husbands live apart from their wives in the households of their sisters.
回顾：亲族概念与用语
Kinship terms and concepts
l Incest taboo
l Lineage
l Marriage
l Matrilineal (vs. Patrilineal) descent
l Matrilocal, patrilocal, and neolocal residence patterns
l Nuclear family
l Monogamy
l Polygyny & polyandry
l Affinal kin
l Bride price
l Conjugal family
l Consanguine family
l Descent group
l Dowry
l Endogamy
l Exogamy
l Hypogamy
l Hypergamy
l Extended family
l Family (vs. household)
l Gender (vs. )
课程阅读材料：
, Love, and Marriage
1) Kinship and Marriage; 2) Jankowiak and Fischer, A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Romantic Love, Ethnology.
Family and Kinship Practices 亲族实践
M. Wolf, Uterine Families and the Women’s Community; P. L. Kilbride, African Polygyny: Family Values and Contemporary Changes; Rubie Watson, The Named and the Nameless; 2 V. Fong, China’s One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters
本信息来自：复旦大学人类学新浪博客
