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Applied Anthropology

Ann M. Reed

HISTORY

THE FUTURE

ORGANIZATIONS

REFERENCES

WEB LINKS

Definitions
The concept of "applied anthropology" dates back to at least 1906, when it was used to announce the establishment of a diploma program at Oxford, while the term "practical anthropology" was used as early as the 1860s by James Hunt, founder of the Anthropological Society of London (Eddy and Partridge 1987: 4). According to A Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Radcliffe-Brown was the first to use the term, "applied anthropology", in an article published in 1930, 'Anthropology as Public Service and Malinowski's Contribution to It' (1964: 32). Eliot Chapple (1953) considered applied anthropology as, "that aspect of anthropology which deals with the description of changes in human relations and in the isolation of the principles that control them (Sills, Ed. 1968: 325). Current definitions of applied anthropology tend to revolve around the notion of solving contemporary human problems by drawing from a body of knowledge rooted in anthropology. The authors of the primary textbooks in applied anthropology each offer slight variations on this theme. According to Foster, "'applied anthropology' is the phrase commonly used by anthropologists to describe their professional activities in programs that have as their primary goals changes in human behavior believed to ameliorate contemporary social, economic, and technological problems, rather than the development of social and cultural theory" (1969: 54). Chambers writes, "Applied anthropologists use the knowledge, skills, and perspective of their discipline to help solve human problems and facilitate change" (1985:8). According to van Willigen, applied anthropology is "anthropology put to use", in which specific work is defined in terms of the problem and not the discipline (1993: 7). Additionally, "practicing anthropology", coined by Malinowski, implies applied work outside of academia (a concept from the 1970s), though it has also been used synonymously w/ "applied anthropology" (Chambers 1985: 16; Eddy and Partridge 1987: 7). "Practicing anthropology" is defined by Baba and Hill as, "a profession whose fundamental commitment is the application of knowledge to solve modem human problems" (1997: 2).

History

The British were the first to formally recognize the practical value of anthropology and also the first to employ applied anthropologists (Foster 1969:18 1). E.B. Tylor considered anthropology to be a "policy science" and urged for its use in improving the human condition (Sills, Ed. 1968: 337). Anthropology was first used in the administration of the British colonies under the rubric of indirect rule (originated by Lord Lugard) by Northcote Thomas in Nigeria in 1908 (Foster 1969: 187). The first formal administrative applied work in the US was not until 1934 with the Indian Reorganization Act of the New Deal. Anthropologists, acting as liaisons between Native American groups and the BIA, observed the leadership and patterns of government on reservations and made recommendations on the establishment of tribal charters and constitutions (Foster 1969: 200). The development of anthropologists working in federal policy is generally credited to John Collier, Commissioner of BIA who advocated for utilizing the specialized skills of anthropologists in thepublic sector (van Willigen 1986: 24). Applied work in archaeology was first initiated during the 1920s when government policy-makers cooperated in public works projects (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 283).
During the World War II era, applied anthropologists employed under the communityanalysis section of the War Relocation Authority studied the problems associated with theforcible removal of West Coast Japanese to internment camps east of the Sierras(Foster 1969:203). In 1941, the Society for Applied Anthropology was established by anthropologists including Margaret Mead, Eliot Chapple, and Fred Richardson in response to "growing academic bias" within the American Anthropological Association (AAA) (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 283). Later that same year, the first journal of SfAA was published, Applied Anthropology, though the name was changed to Human Organization in 1949. Also in 1949, the Society for Applied Anthropology was the first organization within anthropology to create an ethics statement, which called upon the anthropologist to, "take responsibility for the effects of his recommendations, never maintaining that he is merely a technician unconcerned with the ends toward which his applied scientific skills are directed" (Mead, Chapple, and Brown vol.8 1949: 20; van Willigen 1993: 32).
The post-war period ushered in a growing demand for Ph.D.s in anthropology to fill academic positions in the burgeoning anthropology departments across the U.S. (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 284). At the same time, the U.S. government's Point Four Program sought the skills of applied anthropologists in the development and assessment of formal technical international aid and foreign policy (Foster 1969: 205). During the late 1960s to early 1970s, the academic market could not absorb the number of Ph.D.s graduating in anthropology. As a direct result of U.S. policy in Vietnam, many anthropologists were reluctant to seek public sector employment (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 284). Despite this sentiment, increasing employment opportunities for archaeologists were available in cultural resource management as a result of the National Environmental Policy Act in 1969 (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 286). Quality of archaeological work was a pressing concern of the time, which led to the founding of the Society of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA) and the establishment of official criteria for trained archaeological professionals in both the public and private sector in areas such as cultural resource management (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 286).
In the 1970s, anthropology students demanded more attention to the relevance of anthropology to "pressing human needs" as well as better preparation for the uncertain job market they would soon be joining (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 284). While the academic employment sector continued to shrink, policy research employment expanded. Organizations such as U.S. A . I.D. for the first time required social soundness assessment to be incorporated into project design; policy in areas such as health care delivery and technology adoption was evaluated in terms of impact and feasibility in the social and cultural context. Additionally, Practicing Anthropology was first published in 1978 by SfAA to voice the concerns of practicing anthropologists, to bridge the gap between practicing and academic anthropologists, to encourage the use of anthropology in policy research and implementation, and to serve as a forum for dialogue about the present state and future of anthropology (Practicing Anthropology vol. 20 no. 1 1998: sleeve).
SOPA, the Society of Professional Anthropologists was established in Tucson as the first local practitioner organization (LPO) in 1974 (van Willigen 1993:35; Fiske and Chambers 1997: 285). Though SOPA disbanded within a decade, it served as the model for many other regional organizations, such as the Washington Association of Practicing Anthropologists (in D.C.)and the High Plains Society for Applied Anthropology (in Boulder, CO), which serve as "grassroots" organizations providing members with a forum to share common concerns, to establish identity, and to network with other professionals. Roughly a dozen LPOs are currently operating in the U.S. (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 285).
In 1983, the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA) was founded specifically to address the interests of practitioners and advance the professionalization of such anthropologists in AAA (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 286). Though both SfAA and NAPA have tried to represent the interests of all sub-fields of anthropology, both organizations are dominated by the interests of cultural anthropologists (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 286). Archaeologists have formed their own organizations, such as the Society of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA).
According to a study of Ph.D. s conducted by AAA (1992), non-academic employment of anthropologists peaked at 5 1 % in 1986 (in Fiske and Chambers 1997: 3 03). In the early 1990s, about one in three new graduates in U.S. anthropology departments found employment outside of academia and this trend seems to be continuing (Fiske and Chambers 1997: 285). According to the AAA annual questionnaire of Ph.D.s for 1997 (responses comprising 44% of total Ph.D.s granted), 29% found non-academic employment (AAA 1997: 314). "There are more non-academic career opportunities available to Ph.D. anthropologists, currently, than there are jobs in the academy itself' (AAA 1997: 313). According to 1997 figures, applied anthropology accounted for an average of 7% of new Ph.D.s awarded in the U.S.; with cultural at 53%, archaeology at 26%, biological / physical at 12%, and linguistic at 1% (AAA 1997: 308). However, it is important to consider that "fewer practicing anthropologists receive specific training in applied anthropology itself than in sociocultural" (AAA 1997: 308). In addition, Ph.D.s from other subfields may consider themselves applied anthropologists. Practicing anthropologists who held Master's degrees were not considered in the questionnaire.
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Career Opportunities / Employment
Applied anthropologists find themselves in a host of careers with multi-faceted job descriptions. Though the most frequent role is that of researcher, applied anthropologists are often also implementers, mediators, coordinators, administrators, evaluators, activists, and cultural and political "motivators" (van Willigen 1993: 4-5; Hill and Baba 1997: 90). Traditional areas of applied anthropology include health, education, and international development, whereas newer areas include legal planning, energy policy, housing, and welfare reform (Wulff and Fiske, Eds. 1987: xii). Applied anthropologist may work in a number of settings: as short or long-term consultants, full time government employees, for private advocacy-oriented businesses, in academic institutions, or as collaborators at the local level (Wulff and Fiske, Eds. 1987: xiii). Jobs available to applied