【内容提要】自20世纪80年代起,人类学者再也不用透过台湾、香港,或东南亚华人社会“间接”了解中国,而50年代迄今,中国大陆的经济发展与相应的社会文化变迁,更使得中国本身已然成为宝贵的田野。改革开放三十多年来,西方学者在中国这块田野地的研究,几乎都不脱离革命、传统与现代性这彼此牵连的三条主轴。对人类学者而言,当各类媒体如临现场般的呈现大小事件,田野研究和参与观察不再是学科专利,究竟人类学对了解当代中国的意义为何?在目前无论主题、理论、方法与其他相关学科高度重叠的现况下,人类学对于中国研究的独特视野及洞见又何在?本文试图透过近二十年来的西方人类学中国研究指出,革命本身与其当代意义不应也不能被视为禁区,反而是值得反思、持续深化论证的核心。
【关键词】传统 革命 现代性 生活经验
Abstract: Starting from 1980s, it has become unnecessary for anthropologists to acquire “indirect” understanding of China through Chinese communities in Taiwan, Hong Kong, or Southeast Asia. In fact, ever since 1950s, the economic development and the corresponding social and cultural changes in mainland China have turned the country into a treasure land for field research. In the past thirty years after the reform and open-door policy, field work ever done on the Chinese soil by western scholars has been largely centering around three main axis, i.e., revolution, tradition, and modernity. Anthropologists have found that live media coverage and presentation of major or minor incidents are nothing short of field research and participatory observation which were once their exclusive domain. What is the meaning of anthropology to the understanding of modern China? Given the high overlapping of subjects, theories and methods between related disciplines, what constitutes the unique vision and insight of anthropology in the study of China? Based on China studies conducted by western anthropologists in the past twenty years, this author maintains that revolution and its modern implications should not be considered as forbidden topics, rather they should become kernel topics that call for serious reflection and deep-going exposition.
Keywords:tradition, revolution, modernity, life experience
一、前言
2002年柏克莱中国研究中心年度会议原定主题是 “Anthropology in and of China:A Cross-Generation Conversation”,许多学者认为“世代”带有阶层意味,主办者也从善如流地变更会议名称,但以与会学者资历而言,毫无疑问跨越了数个世代。①除了研究区域和主题的差异,跨世代学者对当代人类学的中国研究都提出了几乎一致且强烈的自我批判。其中最资深,应该也是会场唯一的“第一代”人类学者施坚雅(Skinner, 2004:43-46)指出,当前人类学中国研究学者一直汲汲营营界定自我“地盘”(turf),缺乏与其他学科及区域研究对话,也未见基于中国研究建立的人类学理论。事实上,弗里德曼(Freedman, 1963:1-19)在距今半世纪前,提倡人类学可以从传统部落转而研究中国这个“文明社会”时即指出这门学科运用在中国社会的局限性,因而强调必须借鉴社会学与史学方法,以及学科对话的重要。从两位汉学人类学开拓者相隔数十年的意见不难发现,上述问题似乎没有因为时空改变而改变,甚至停留在半个世纪前。不同的是,当前人类学者能够深入各角落,近距离观察和亲身体会当代中国则是弗里德曼难以逆料的进程。
中国农村与农民在清末新政之后,逐渐被视为落后的根源(Faure & Liu 2002:1-16),而导致这个发展的关键因素主要来自当时的知识圈。如译自日文的“农民”这个词汇及其反映的形象,相当程度来自知识菁英文化与政治的“虚构”(invention)。除了费孝通、林耀华、杨庆堃等实际在中国乡村从事研究的人类学及社会学者关注到农村社会结构、风俗文化对中国乡土社会的重要意义,在当时大多数知识分子眼中,农民是属于迷信无知的人群,更是中国达到现代化目标的绊脚石(Cohen, 1993:151-170)。
从行政措施和手段可以看到地方治理模式的差异,但追求经济发展则是所有地区的共同目标,搞活经济以及奔向现代化也成为不同区域的最大公约数。20世纪初期以来,农村与农民在知识分子“虚构”下成为贫穷落后的象征,这些知识分子也透过现代性话语表达他们对“进步”的追求。集体时代的现代性是国家计划性变迁所创造的标语、口号或其他形式论述,而当代则是透过媒体或从城市回乡的农民传递观念、行为,以及物质生活的现代化想象。随着电子媒介以及网络普及化,想象已经成为新的社会实践,几乎每一个人都能透过便捷的交通或通讯,以实质或想象的方式呈现自我或认识远方的他者。阿帕杜莱(Appadurai, 1996:31)认为,这种想象不是一种集体迷幻(the opium of the masses),已经成为社会实践的场域,在行动者个人位置与全球界定下可能性场域之间的操作与协商。在商品、资本、人口、信息、知识与想象高速流动的当代中国,全球化的结果也不尽然产生文化统一现象,反而是地方(local)与外界透过实体或媒介的接触,对于地方社会形成再创造或再发明的再地方化(cf. Long, 1996:50)。
从区域研究立场出发,罗沙贝瑞(Roseberry, 1989:116-117)曾提出,以世界体系核心的需要或动态性或许无法完全理解区域发展,必须集中在超越空间边界的关系,将外在的关系放置到社会模型中,再回归到地方层次,以及加入一个地方行动者(actor)视野。所谓地方行动者视野,或许可以与列斐伏尔(Lefebvre, 1991)的“空间的生产”(production of the local)扣连。列斐伏尔界定的空间既不是心理建构,也不是一个实质容器(container),而是人群、事物与他们生存环境的内在关系。透过空间实践、空间展演、空间诠释过程中,地景持续被政治驱力再形塑、再诠释,透过交通、桥梁或高耸的尖塔等下层结构地标,建构出现代性地景;另一方面,也利用怀旧情感,复兴逝去的人文精神,营造出传统空间的复古(Smith, 1999:265-368)。建立中国式人文社会学科的“实验室”,以及当代中国研究最关键的讨论,就是深入剖析内化为日常生活语言以及思维模式的革命传统。
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【注释】
①该研讨会的发言稿最后以“New Reflections on Anthropological Studies of (Greater) China”为题正式出版(Liu [ed.], 2004)。
② 人类学者在冷战时期以台湾、香港或东南亚华人社会为汉人(中国)研究的替代田野地,社会学者陈绍馨在《中国社会文化的实验室:台湾》一文中认为,台湾一方面保存了汉人社会文化传统,另一方面经过不同政治统治导致的社会变迁以及丰富的文献档案,使得台湾具备中国社会文化实验室的条件。
③中国民族学与人类学百年来的兴起及其在共产制度下转变与发展的过程,可参见Guldin(1994)以及Liu(2003:217-223)。
④中国政府接着与西方学术机构展开多次大型合作计划,例如多学科取向的“邹平计划”,以山东邹平冯家村为基地,参与的人类学者包括冯珠娣(Judith Farquhar)、基普尼斯、黄树民,经济学者如艾恺(Guy Alitto)、韩德森(Gail E. Henderson)、戴慕珍(Jean Oi)、魏昂德(Andrew Walder)、奥克森伯格(Michel Oksenberg),以及历史、社会学、政治学者。因为邹平未正式开放国外人士参访,因此这些学者被限制在一两个点,同时由官方安排食宿(Kipnis, 1997:11)。另外,杨懋春研究的山东台头村也在80年代接待了戴瑙玛(Norma Diamond)。
⑤相关问题参阅赵树冈:《谁让农民“灰头土脸”?——作为流动地景的中国乡民》,载《江苏行政学院学报》2014年第1期。
⑥ 2008年因为北京奥运会,浙江村彻底拆除改建为商贸城,而原有农村移民网络的变迁或许将成为研究的另一个重点。
⑦李泽厚、刘再复《告别革命》所讨论的“革命”,简单地说是指告别组织群众进行大规模暴力的政治运动,如果从这个角度而言,邓小平时代的“三不政策”确实已经告别了革命,但本文并非在上述脉络上思考“革命”。
⑧有关1980年《中国青年》的“人生的意义到底是什么?”问题讨论的始末,见郭楠柠:《我亲历的“潘晓讨论”》,载《炎黄春秋》2008年第12期。
作者介绍:
赵树冈:台湾“中央研究院”近代史研究所(Zhao Shugang, Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica)