Abstract: This paper discusses epistemological issues sporadically appearing in the literature on China studies, touching upon ontology, praxis, epistemology, teleology, methodology and the choice of method. It introduces the institutions and norms of the research community. Finally, it proposes a research agenda concerning the global production of China knowledge.
【注释】
{1}比较接近的尝试,参见David Shambaugh, The American Studies of Contemporary China (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
{2}所以即使认清了所谓中国疆域之内的庞大差异,却对于中国这个范围本身没有质疑,其实,此时的中国已经成为中央的同义辞,见William G. Skinner, The City in Later Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977).
{3}即使旨在解构时,中国仍然是本体上的预设,如David Goodman and Gerald Segal, (eds.),China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (London: Routledge, 1994);另参见Harry Harding, “The Study of Chinese Politics: Toward a Third Generation of Chinese Politics,” World Politics 36, 2 (1984); R. David Arkush, Fei Xiaotong and Sociology in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, 1981).
{4}见Tu Wei-ming (ed.), The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994).
{5}Guo Jian “ Politics of Othering and Postmodernization of the Cultural Revolution,” Postcolonial Studies 2, 2 (1999): 213-229.
{6}见Robert Weller, Resistance, Chaos and Control in China: Taiping Rebels, Taiwanese Ghosts and Tiananmen (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry (eds.), Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).
{7}参见David Campbell and Michael J. Shapiro, Moral Spaces: Rethinking Ethics and World Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.
{8}参见Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning the Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
{9}参见David Der-wei Wang, Fin-de-siècle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1849-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).
{10}从而发展出多地点(Multi-site)研究方法,参见George Marcus, Ethnography through Thick and Thin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
{11}参见Tani Barlow (ed.), Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997); Stevan Harrell (ed.), Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995); Lisa Rofel, Other Modernities: Gendered Yearnings in China after Socialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
{12}参见Jun Jing, The Temple of Memories (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Ann Anagnost, National Past-Times (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997); Chih-yu Shih, Negotiating Ethnicity in China: Citizenship as a Response to the State (London: Routledge, 2002).
{13}参见Lily H. M. Ling, Postcolonial Learning between Asia and the West: Conquest of Desire (London: Palgrave, 2001)
{14}参见Wang Gungwu, The Chineseness of China: Selected Essays (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991).
{15}故不同价值的社会得到知识的途径有异,但仍皆属于客观知识的一种呈现,参见Joseph Needham, The Grand Tradition: Science and Society in East and West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
{16}包括René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant与Karl Popper。此外,根据Werner Heisenberg(海森伯格)的“不确定原则”(uncertain principle)及Niels Bohr(布尔)的“互补原则”(principle of complementary)所发展的量子机械体系的未决定性原理,物质无法同时拥有确定的位置及确定的运动量,因二者的特性是随时相互影响的。由此,海氏及布氏建议未决定性是所有现象的特性,但此只在次原子层次中较为明显。同时,他们发现,在研究次原子层次的现象时,研究行动是不可能不影响到研究对象的,而且所观察到的结果是“被观察现象”与“观察工具及模式”交互影响的产物,因此这个观念打破了科学家可以置身于其研究现象之外的想法,科学家并不能自研究结果中发现外在客观的知识,而是发现自己参与外界互动后的知识。因此,由研究所得之科学知识是同时有关研究者,以及他所研究现象二者的知识。夏林清、郑村棋(合译著),《行动科学──在实践中探讨》(台北:张老师出版社),页8-9。
{17}关于人权的研究最容易是如此,例见Peter Van Ness (ed.), Debating Human Rights (London: Routledge, 1999); James A. Seymour, The Fifth Modernization: China's Human Rights Movement, 1978-1979 (Stanfordville, N.Y.: Human Rights Publishing Group, 1981); Ann Kent, Between Freedom and Subsistence: China and Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
{18}Harry Harding, “From China, with Disdain: New Trends in the Study of China,” Asian Survey 22, 10 (1982).
{19}Harry Harding,“和何汉理对谈‘当代中国研究’”,《中国大陆研究教学通讯》2(民83.4)。
{20}例见Warren Kuo, Analytical History of Chinese Communist Party (Taipei: Institute of International Relations, 1966).
{21}Kuo Tai-chun and Ramon H. Myers, Understanding Communist China: Communist China Studies in the United States and the Republic of China, 1949-1978 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986).
{22}中国身份者研究民族主义时最尴尬,将之视为一种反映与反应国际的政治现象最能满足客观主义的要求,例见Yongnian Cheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization, Identity, and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
{23}关于过去中国人自己的中国知识生产,例见John K. Fairbank, The Chinese World Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968);关于四九年之后的中国人的中国知识,例如毛泽东对中国的见解,参见Kuou-sin Chang, Mao Tse-tung and His China (Hong Kong: Heinemann, 1978).
{24}参见David Shambaugh, Beautiful Imperialist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
{25}见Chih-yu Shih, “A Postcolonial Approach to the State Question in China,” The Journal of Contemporary China 17, 7 (1998): 125-139.
{26}Harding, “The Study of Chinese Politics.”
{27}参见Andrew Nathan, “Is Chinese Culture Distinctive?-A Review Article,” Journal of Asian Studies (November 1993): 923-936.
{28}坚定的立场见于Lucian Pye, The Mandarin and the Cadre: China's Political Culture (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1988). 另见Chih-yu Shih, The Spirit of Chinese Foreign Policy: A Psychocultural View (London: Macmillan, 1990).
{29}强行翻译的结果就会被视为是伪装,见Lucian Pye, “China: Erratic State, Frustrated Society,” Foreign Affairs 69, 4(1990): 56-74.
{30}有关辩论请参见Suisheng Zhao (ed.), China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China (London: Routledge, 2000); Michael Jacobsen and Ole Bruun, Human Rights and Asian Value: Contesting National Identities and Cultural Representations in Asia (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2000); Daniel A. Bell, East Meets West: Human Rights and Democracy in East Asia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
{31}见费孝通等(合著),《中华民族多元一体格局》(北京:中央民族学院,1989)。
{32}故谓既有普遍性,又有特殊性,例见Robert Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse-tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968).
{33}例见Bruce Mazlish, Revolutionary Ascetic: Evolution of a Political Type (New York: Basic Books, 1976);另见Kwang-kuo Hwang, “Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game,” American Journal of Sociology 97, 4 (1987): 944-974.
{34}Harding, “The Study of Chinese Politics.”
{35}例见Gordon White, Riding the Tiger (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993); Merle Goldman, Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994); Kevin O'Brien, Reform without Liberalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Steven Cheung, “Will China Go Capitalist? An Economic Analysis of Property Rights and Institutional Change,” Hobart Paper 94, The Institute of Economic Affairs (Norfolk: Theford Press, 1982).
{36}James Peck, “The Roots of Rhetoric: The Professional Ideology of America's China Watchers,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2, 1 (October 1969): 59-69.
{37}参见Ramon Myers and Thomas Metzger, “Sinological Shadows: The State of Modern China Studies in the United States,” The Washington Quarterly 3, 2 (1980): 87-114; Franz H. Michael and George E. Taylor, The Far East in the Modern World (Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press, 1975)
{38}Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
{39}中国的商品化不见得带来近代化,扩张的公共领域未必会赋予公民更多权利,法制的建立也不等同于自由权的保障,见Philip C. C. Huang, “The Paradigmatic Crisis in Chinese Studies: Paradoxes in Social and Economic History,” Modern China 17, 3 (July 1991): 299-341.
{40}Susan Naquin and Evelyn S. Rawski, Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).
{41}沟口雄三,《作为方法的中国》(译),林佑崇(台北:国立编译馆,民88)。
{42}例见Hung-chao Tai (ed), Confucianism and Economic Development: An Oriental Alternative? (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute Press, c1989); Ronald Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective on Leading Economic Issues (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987);.Roy Hofheinz, JR. and Kent E. Calder, The Eastasia Edge (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Peter Berger and Hsin-huang Hsiao (eds.), In Search of an East Asian Model (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988).
{43}参见Thomas Metzger, Escape from Predicament: Neo-Confucianism and China's Evolving Political Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977);另见Max Weber, The Religion of China (New York: Free Press, 1951).
{44}即使是黄宗智这样对近代化概念高度警觉的学者,他的问题意识仍不脱中国为什么生产率不提高或人均生产量有提高,以及这些生产函数的变化算不算近代化的发生,见Philip C. C. Huang, The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985).
{45}参考Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964).
{46}参考Chih-yu Shih, “New-institutionalism in China Studies: Reflection on Literature with a Special Attention to the English Work by Chinese Writers,” The Journal of Post-communist and Transition Studies 15, 2 (June 1999).
{47}例见Susan Shirk, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations during the Reform Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
{48}例见David Granick, Chinese State Enterprises: A Regional Property Rights Analysis (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990); Keun Lee, Chinese Firms and the State in Transition: Property Rights and Agency Problems in the Reform Era (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991).
{49}例见Jean Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Dali Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change Since the Great Leap Forward (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Andrew Walder, Communist Neo-traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
{50}例见Keith Griffin (ed.), Institutional Reform and Economic Development in the Chinese Countryside (London: Macmillan, 1984); Yu-shan Wu, Comparative Economic Transformations: Mainland China, Hungary, the Soviet Union, and Taiwan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994).
{51}例见Frederick C. Teiwes, Politics at Mao's Court: Gao Gang and Party Factionalism in the Early 1950s (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), Ch.1; Lucian Pye, The Dynamics of Chinese Politics (Cambridge: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, 1981); Martin King Whyte, Small Groups and Political Rituals in China (Berkeley: Unviersity of California Press, 1974); Ramon Myers, “Wheat in China: Past, Present and Future,” The China Quarterly 74 (June 1978): 297-333.
{52}两条路线的代表作是Roderick, MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, I: Contradiction among the People, 1956-1957 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974); 三条路线的代表作是Dorothy Solinger (ed.), Three Visions of Chinese Socialism (Boulder: Westview, 1984).
{53}例见Alexander Eckstein, China's Economic Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1977).
{54}例见John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971).
{55}见William L. Parish and Martin King Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China (University of Chicago Press, 1978); Dwight H. Perkins (ed.), China's Modern Economy in Historical Perspective (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975).
{56}参见Mark Seldon, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971); Lucien Bianco, Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915-1949 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971); Jean Chesneaux, Francoise Le Barbier, and Marie-Claire Bergere, China from the 1911 Revolution to Liberation (trans.), Paul Auster, Lydia Davis and Anne Destenay (Hassocks, England : Harvester Press, 1977).
{57}参见John G. Gurley, China's Economy and the Maoist Strategy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1976); Victor Lippit, The Economic Development of China (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1987);Samir Amin, The Future of Maoism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983); Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977); John Collier and Elsie Collier, China's Socialist Revolution (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973).
{58}中国大陆学者在一九八九年后提出大量阶级史观的分析,这些文献之回顾见于Chih-yu Shih, Collective Democracy: Political and Legal Reform in China (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1999), Ch. 5.
{59}Angus McDonaald, Jr., “Wallerstain's World-Economy: How Seriously Should We Take It?” Journal of Asian Studies 38, 3 (May 1979).
{60}参见Christopher Chase-dunn (ed.), Socialist States in the World System (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982).
{61}详见Bruce Cummings, “Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies during and after the Cold War,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 29, 1 (Jan-Mar, 1997).
{62}参见Anne M. Bailey and Josep R. Llobera (eds.), The Asiatic Mode of Production : Science and Politics (London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981).
{63}见Arif Dirlik, “The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism,” in A. McClintock, A. Mufti and E. Shahat (eds.), Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation and Postcolonial Perspectives (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
{64}参见Jan S. Prybyla, Reform in China and Other Socialist Economies (Washington, D.C.: AEI Press for the Amrican Enterprise Institute ; Lanham, MD : Distributed by University Press of America, 1990); Victor Nee, “ A theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism,” American Sociological Review 54, 5 (1989): 663-681.
{65}见Jean Oi, “Rational Choice and Attainment of Wealth and Power in the Countryside,” in D. Goodman and B. Hooper (eds.), China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 64-79.
{66}例见Andrew Walder, “Evolving Property Rights and Their Political Consequence,” in Goodman and Hooper. 即使马克思主义也可以经由引介个人需要的观点,而接纳个人主义方法学,参见Zhang Boshu, Marxism and Human Sociobiology: The Perspective of Economic Reforms in China (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
{67}Brett George Sheehan, The Currency of Legitimation: Banks, Bank Money and State-society Relations in Tianjin, China, 1916-1938, Ph.D thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1997.
{68}B. R. Tomlinson, “Productivity and Power: Institutional Structures and Agriculture Performance in India and China, 1900-50,” in J. Janet, H. Harris and Cc. M. Lewis, The New Institutional Economics and Third World Development (London: Routledge, 1995).
{69}既有历史的条件可以用小区或空间的特性来表述,见Jay Chih-jou Chen, Markets and Clientelism: The Transformation of Property Rights in Rural China (London: Routledge: 2002).
{70}参考Kuen Lee与 Yu-shan Wu.
{71}例见J. Hong, “The Internationalization of Television in China: The Evolution of Ideology, Society, and Media Since the Reform,” Communication Abstracts 23, 1 (2000); Feng Chen, Joseph Fewsmith, Economic Transition and Political Legitimacy in Post-Mao China: Ideology and Reform (Albany, NY : State University of New York Press, 1995).
{72}寻租是最重要的指标,见Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China (Westport: Praeger, 1994); Ting Gong, “Dangerous Collusion: Corruption as a Collective Venture in Contemporary China,” Communist and Post-communist Studies 35, 1 (2002): 85-104; Xiaopo Lü, Cadres and Corruption: The Organizational Involution of the Chinese Communist Party (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000); James Acheson, “The Household Economy in Rural China: Is the Involution over?” in J. Acheson (ed.), Anthropology and Institutional Economics (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994).
{73}参见Shambaugh.
{74}见石之瑜、黄竞涓(合著)、“免国于患者行其下:第二轨道外交背后的国家社会论述”,《政治科学论丛》 11。
{75}参考邵宗海,《大陆“台湾研究”之研究》(台北:国家科学会社会资料中心,民85);包宗和,《中共中国社会科学院台湾研究所与厦门大学台湾研究所研究人员著作内容分析及比较研究》(台北:行政院大陆委员会,民82)。
{76}参见Kuo and Myers.
{77}见蔡政文,“召集人序”,于吴玉山、林文程、江水平(合着),《后邓时期对大陆及台湾的震荡》(台北:财团法人国家发展研究文教基金会,民84),页XI-XII。
{78}参见Madsen.
{79}参考石之瑜,《大陆问题研究》(台北:三民,民84),页227-232。
{80}华裔美籍教授赵全胜多次在不同研讨会中口头报告此一现象。
{81}比如以研究中国问题为主要活动内容的华人政治学家论坛,网址:www.inta.gatech.edu.china。
{82}程念慈,“中国大陆研究的感性思索”,《中国大陆研究教学通讯》(民83.6),页17。
{83}例见叶启政,《社会学与本土化》(台北:巨流,民90);杨中芳,《如何研究中国人:心理学研究本土化论文集》(台北:远流,民90);石之瑜,《政治学的知识脉络》(台北:五南,民90)。
{84}参考李英明,“后现代与后殖民语境下的台湾社会科学的出路”,辑于李文志、萧全政(合编),《社会科学在台湾》(台北:元照,民90),页39-57。
{85}见石之瑜,《后现代的政治知识》(台北:元照,民91)。
{86}参考徐振国,“政治学方法论偏颇发展的检讨”,《政治与社会哲学评论》,第二期,2002年9月,页123-178。
{87}最明显的是,近十年来对于乡镇村级的研究近乎泛滥。
{88}例见Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996); Larry Diamond and Ramon Myers (eds.), Election and Democracy in Greater China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
{89}参见李希光,刘康,《妖魔化中国的背后》(台北:捷幼,民86)。
{90}见石之瑜,《中国文化与中国的民》(台北:风云论坛,民86),第二章。