①Jukka Siikala, Those Who Know: the Tumu Korero of the Cook Islands, FF Network, 2009,p.5.
②安东尼·佩勒蒂认为:“没有现代媒介,现代性不可能表征非现代性,正是通过现代媒介,非现代的表征才变得现代化。换言之,被视为非现代的,在非现代的现代话语当中获得其意义。既然非现代性只能作为现代的他者才可以被讨论,那么,非现代性同时也是关于现代性的话语。”(Perttti J. Anttonen,1993,p.18.)在这个意义上,民俗学也是一门现代性的学科,只有“透过‘现代性’才能理解‘传统’”。
③Diarmuid O Giollain, "Tradition, Modernity and Cultural Diversity", Dynamics of Tradition: Perspectives on Oral Poetry and Folk Belief, edited by Lotte Tarkka, Studia Fennica, Folkloristica, 2003, p.38.
④正是因为民俗学家们长期以来聚精会神地投身于民俗的“搜集与保护”工作当中,才会引发民俗学学科内外的危机,20世纪80年代以来,民俗学被学术界称为“半吊子的学问”或者“资料之学”,在某些国家,比如墨西哥,民俗学甚至没有合法的学术地位可言,民俗学界内部也因为缺乏“宏大的理论”而产生了普遍的学科危机感,从而迫使民俗学进入了反思的时代。相关论述可参看Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. "Folklore's Crisis", Journal of American Folklore 111, 1998, p.281~327; Alan Dundes, "Folkloristics in the Twenty-first Centur", Journal of American Folklore 118(470), AFS Invited Presidential Plenary Address, 2004, pp. 385~408.
⑤Jacobs, Joseph, "The Folk", Folk-Lore 4, 1893, p.237.
⑥Lauri Honko, "Study on Tradition and Cultural Identity", Tradition and Cultural Identity, by Lauri Honko, Turku, Finland: Nordic Institute of Folklore, 1988, p.10.
⑦Shils, Edward, Tradition, University of Chicago Press, 1981, p.3.
⑧Ben-Amos, Dan, "The Seven Strands of Tradition: Varieties in Its Meaning in American Folklore Studies". Journal of Folklore Research 21, 1984, pp. 97~131.丹·本-阿默斯的经典论文《传统的七条路径》总结了民俗学领域关于“传统”的七种观点,它们分别是“传统”作为“知识、经典、过程、资源库、文化、语言与表演”。本文以为,作为“资料库”的“传统”,内在地包括了作为“文化”与“语言”的意含。“传统”作为“表演”的观点在正文当中另有论述。关于丹·本-阿默斯的评论,参见Alan Gailey,"The Nature of Tradition",Folklore 100,1989, pp. 143~161.
⑨Finnegan Ruth, "Tradition, But What Tradition, and For Whom?", Oral Tradition, 6,1991, p.114.
⑩相关著作有Singer Milton, When a Great Tradition Modernizes ,New York: Praeger, 1972; Hermann Bausinger, Folk Culture in a World of Technology, translated by Elke Dettmer, Indiana University Press, Blooming and Indianapolis, 1990.鲍辛格早于《传统的发明》的作者艾里克·霍布斯鲍姆与特里斯·兰格提出,传统并不是一个文化给定的东西,而是一种文化的建构。
(13)转引自Venetia J. Newall "The Adaptation of Folklore and Tradition(Folklorismus)", Folklore 98:1987, p.136.
(14)Dorson, Richard M, Folklore and Fakelore: Essays Toward a Discipline of Folk Studies, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976.
(15)Lauri Honko, Possibilities of International Cooperation and Regulation in the Safeguarding of Folklore, NIF, Vol 15(1), 1987, pp. 7~8.
(16)Vilmos Voigt, Today's Folklore: A Review in Contemporary Folklore and Culture Change, Edited by Irma-Riitta Jarvinen, Lansi-Savo Oy, Mikkeli, 1986, pp. 17~32.
(17)转引自Venetia J. Newall,"The Adaptation of Folklore and Tradition(Folklorismus)",Folklore 98,1987,p.147.简单地把新的民俗现象斥之为“伪民俗”或者“民俗主义”显然太简单化了,纵然民俗学家视之为伪造,但是,民众群体可能十分认同它。作为一种社会现象,民俗学家有义务去研究这些“传统化”的行为。
(19)Jocelyn S. Linnekin, "Defining Tradition: Variations on the Hawaiian Identity", American Ethnologist 10, 1983,p.241.在作者的观念当中,所谓“传统”,就是一个挑选的过程,过去的内容被按照一种现代的意义予以修正与重新定义。传统是流动的,其内容是被每一代人定义的,其“无时间性”可以被情境化地建构。过去与现在时间与空间在这一概念当中倒塌了。
(20)Ronald L. Baker, "Tradition and The Individual Talent in Folklore and Literature", Western Folklore 59, 2000,p.107.这与民俗学家的观点不同,民俗学家认为,习俗是传统的,而传统一定是动态的。
(21)Hall, Stuart, "Notes on deconstructing 'the popular'", Raphael Samuel(ed.)People's History and Socialist Theory, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981, p.236.
(22)Sabine Trebinjac, "The Invention and Re-invention of Musical Tradition in China", History and Anthropology 15, 2004,p.221.作者在研究了中国音乐传统之后认为:“他们(中国人)的发明总是一再被重新发明,‘传统’在中国已经被‘国家传统主义’所取代,核心的权力机关总是在创造与调适着传统。”“在中国,人人都说整理后的音乐是典型的中国音乐,但是,这种‘家族的相似’包括了中国所有的音乐传统,经过了搜集者的模塑,只是国家传统主义的一部分”。因此,作者认为,在中国,“传统”的概念与西方人的定义不同,作者建议代之以“国家传统主义”。关于美国民俗传统形成过程的描述,可参见Richard M. Dorson, "The Shaping of Folklore Traditions in the United States", Folklore 78,1967,p.161~183.理查德·道森分析了移民与殖民的历史对于美国各族群民俗传统形成的影响。
(23)Paul Sant Cassia, "Tradition, Tourism and Memory in Maha", The Journal of the Royal Anthropological lnstitute 5, 1999, p.259.仅仅关注文化精英的行为与动机会产生一种单一维度的仪式观点,从而忽视了传统在展演的过程当中,被社会其他成员转化的观点。Simon Coleman & John Elsner, "Tradition as Play:Pilgrimage to 'England's Nazareth",History and Anthropology 1 5,2004, p.284.类似的观点可见:Anna-Leena Siikala, "Tradition, locality and multicultural processes", Folklore Fellows 'Summer School(FFN 12, June:5~6), 1994, pp. 2~4;1997, pp. 5~6.
(24)Dorota C. Starzecka, Review 1976, "Traditions in Transition: Culture Contact and Material Change", by L. E. Dawson, Man, 11: 1976, pp. 627~628.外来的旅游者的喜好修正着地方群体的认同,这种被修正的认同正在朝着世界范围内的统一性迈进。
(25)关于“个体与传统”之间关系的民俗学文献综述,可参考:Michael Owen Jones, "'Tradition' in Identity Discourses and an Individual's Symbolic Construction of Self", Western Folklore 59, 2000, pp. 115~141.
(26)Glassie, Henry, "Tradition", Journal of American Folklore, 108:1995,pp. 395~412.格拉西把“传统”等同于“表演”,认为表演者处于责任的复杂纽带当中。在谈到“领袖与传统”之间的关系时,查尔斯·约翰·艾拉斯莫斯提倡一种“文化限制论”,遗憾的是他未能对这一观点进行细致的阐述。Charles John Erasmus. "The Leader vs. Tradition:A Case Study",American Anthropologist 54,1952,pp. 168~178.
(27)McDonald, Barry, "Tradition as Personal Relationship", Journal of American Folklore, 110(435),1997, p.61.作者认的,传统的激发可能被互动关系当中的每个部分持续地协商,这样一来,个人表达的机会与变异(尤其是内容与语境)可以被看作内在于传统的过程当中。
(28)Anne Elise Thomas, "Practicing Tradition: History and Community in an Appalachian Dance Style", Western Folklore 60, 2001, p.166.
(29)Handler, Richard, and Jocelyn Linnekin, "Tradition, Genuine or Spurious", Journal of American Folklore 97, 1984. p.279.
(30)Simon J. Bronner, "The Meaning of Tradition: An Introduction", Western Folklore 59(2)2000, p.97.
(31)Simon J. Bronner, "The American Concept of Tradition: Folklore in the Discourse of Traditional Values", Western Folklore 59, 2000, p.161.