既然强调人性的文化差异,因而在各个文化之间进行比较便成为法律人类学发轫之初的通行做法。比如, 1861年瑞士的法律学者巴霍芬( J. J. Bachofen)发表了《母权制》,英国的梅因( Sir H. Maine)在同一年也出版了《古代法》,这两部著作的出版开创了对部落社会的法律制度进行比较研究的先河,这两个人也就成为后来法律人类学的先驱人物。稍晚一些时候,美国持社会进化论观点的律师兼人类学家摩尔根(L. H. Morgan)亦在1877年发表了《古代社会》这一名著,并由此而影响到了马克思和恩格斯,特别是恩格斯1884年出版的《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》一书。〔3 〕
到了今天,依据研究的旨趣,法律人类学家内部可以分为两大派别,一派即是所谓的“法学家派”的法律人类学,这一派主张以西方的法律观念来解释初民社会的法律现象,其主要代表人物是霍贝尔( E.A. Hoebel) 、帕斯比昔(L. Posp isil) 、葛拉克曼(M . Gluckmann)以及卢埃林(K. N . L lewellyn)等人。另一派即是所谓的“非法学家派”,这一派主张从当地人的文化脉络中去理解当地人的法律现象,这一派的代表人物是博安南( P . Bohannan) 、罗伯茨( S. Roberts) 、古利佛( P . H . Gulliver)等人。前者受到的批评是,他们往往把西方的法律观念强加到本土人的文化中去,因而显得有些削足适履。后者受到的批评则是没有在法律的规则与一般的社会控制的规则之间做出明确的区分。政治与法律人类学的发展是离不开一般人类学的发展的,因而在了解人类学对于政治与法律问题的研究的历史脉络之前,了解一下人类学大体的发展脉络是极为必要的,因为不可否认,政治与法律人类学可以算作是一般人类学的一个分支或者说一个有机的组成部分。
在卡姆拉夫和罗伯茨出版的《规则与过程:在一种非洲文化下的争端的逻辑》一书中明确地指出,20世纪80年代以来,法律人类学的研究大体可以归结为两种研究范式,其一为“以规则为中心的范式”,〔18〕这与拉德克里夫·布朗所认为的社会秩序源于强制施行的规则的观点紧密相连;〔19〕其二为“过程的范式”,其历史渊源是马林诺夫斯基所倡导的秩序来自于有着自我利益的个体的不断选择的观点。“以规则为中心的范式”主要是以帕斯比昔、霍贝尔和汉姆尼特( Ian Hamnett)等人的研究为代表。〔20〕这类研究的一个共同特点是,他们大多都关注作为社会控制的法律以及强制性制裁,并将法律的程序看成是履行社会规则的手段。很明显,这种研究取向是把注意力集中在法律行为制度化的形式方面,并将法律案件的处理结果看成是由应用成文法典所导致的。〔21〕
对法律与文化关系的专门讨论出现于18世纪中叶,并通过19世纪晚期的欧洲启蒙运动、浪漫主义和社会科学思想而得以发展起来。从理论上讲,法律正好是对应着人类学所定义的文化而发展的。并且,菲茨帕特里克( Peter Fitzpatrick)还明确指出,法律作为一种叙事,它是现代的神话。〔55〕这一神话隐含的预设是,欧洲文明的基本特征在乎法律,并在定义上与以缺乏法律以及文化过剩为特点的所谓野蛮人的异文化形成对立。
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〔8 〕Adam Kuper, The Invention of Prim itive Society: Transform ations of an Illusion, London: Routledge, 1988, pp. 6 - 7.
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〔13〕Max Gluckman, The Judicial Process am ong the B arotse of N orthern Rhodesia, Manchester: University ofManchester Press, 1955; Paul
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〔17〕A. R. Radcliffe2Brown, S tructure and Function in Prim itive Society, The Free Press , 1952.
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〔19〕A. R. Radcliffe2Brown, S tructure and Function in Prim itive Society, The Free Press, 1952.
〔20〕Leopold Posp isil, Anthropology of Law: A Com parative Theory, New York: Harper and Row, 1971; E. Adamson Hoebel, The Law of
Prim itiveMan: A S tudy in Com parative LegalDynam ics, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1954; Ian Hamnett, ed. , Social Anthropology and Law, ASA Monography 14, New York: Academic Press, 1977.
〔21〕这种做法明显的是带有把西方的法律概念应用到非西方社会中去的西方中心主义倾向。
〔22〕Elizabeth Colson, Social Control and Vengeance in Plateau Tonga Society, Africa. 23 ( 1953 ) , pp1199 - 211; Victor W. Turner,Schism and Continuity in an African Society, Manchester: ManchesterUniversity Press , 1957.
〔23〕Paul Bohannan, Justice and Judgm ent am ong the Tiv, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1989 /1957; Laura Nader, “The Ethnography of Law”. Am erican Anthropologist. 67 (6) (1965) , Part 2; June Starr, D ispute and Settlem ent in Rural Turkey: An Ethnography of Law, Leiden: Brill, 1978; Philip H. Gulliver, D isputes and N egotiations, New York: Academic Press, 1979.
〔24〕John Comaroff, , & Simon Roberts, Rules and Processes: The Logic of D ispute in an African Context, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981, pp. 13 - 14.
〔25〕John Comaroff, & Simon Roberts, Rules and Processes: The Logic of D ispute in an African Context, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981, p. 240.
〔26〕G. Carter Bentley, “Hermeneutics andWorld Construction inMaranao Disputing”, Am erican Ethnologist, No. 11 (1984) , p. 642.
〔27〕Carol J. Greenhouse, Praying for Justice: Faith, O rder, and Comm unity in an Am erican Town, Ithaca and London: CornellUniversity Press, 1986; Sally Falk Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications: “Custom ary”Law on Kilim anjaro, 1880 - 1980, Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press , 1986; Sally EngleMerry, Getting Justice and Getting Even, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
〔28〕June Starr & Jane F. Collier, History and Power in the S tudy of Law. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989, p. 1.
〔29〕John Comaroff, & Simon Roberts, Rules and Processes: The Logic of D ispute in an African Context, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981; Francis Snyder, Cap italism and Legal Change: An African Transformation. New York, 1981; Francis Snyder, “Anthropology, Dispute Processes and Law: A Critical Introduction. ”B ritish Journal of Law and Society 8 ( 1981) , pp. 141 - 180;Martin Chanock, “Signposts or Tombstones? Reflections on RecentWorks on the Anthropology of Law. ”Law in Context 1 ( 1983) , pp. 107 -125; Paul Francis, “New Directions in the Study of African Law. ”Africa 54 ( 4) ( 1984) , pp. 81 - 88.
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〔31〕Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People w ithout History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, p. 21.
〔32〕George E. Marcus, andMichaelM. J. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experim entalMom ent in the Hum an Sciences, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986.
〔33〕Peter Just, “ History, Power, Ideology, and Culture: CurrentDirections in the Anthropology of Law ”, Law and Society Review Vol.26, No. 2 (1992) , pp. 373 - 411.
〔34〕June Starr & Jane F. Collier, History and Power in the S tudy of Law, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989, p. 3.
〔35〕June Starr & Jane F. Collier, History and Power in the S tudy of Law, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989, p. 2.
〔36〕Peter Just, “History, Power, Ideology, and Culture: CurrentDirections in the Anthropology of Law ”, Law and Society Review Vol.26, No. 2 (1992) , p1376.
〔37〕Sally FalkMoore, “History and the Redefinition of Custom on Kilimanjaro”, in June Starr & Jane F. Collier, History and Power in the Study of Law, Ithaca: Cornell University Press(1989) , pp1277 - 301.
〔38〕Peter Just, “History, Power, Ideology, and Culture: CurrentDirections in the Anthropology of Law ”, Law and Society Review Vol. 26, No. 2 (1992) , pp. 373 - 411.
〔39〕Peter Just, “History, Power, Ideology, and Culture: CurrentDirections in the Anthropology of Law ”, Law and Society Review Vol.26, No. 2 (1992) , pp. 373 - 411.
〔40〕June Starr & Jane F. Collier, History and Power in the S tudy of Law, Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press, 1989, p. 7.
〔41〕Peter Just, “History, Power, Ideology, and Culture: CurrentDirections in the Anthropology of Law ”, Law and Society Review Vol. 26,No. 2 (1992) , pp. 373 - 411.
〔42〕Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, Basic Books, 1973.
〔43〕林端:《儒家伦理与法律文化:社会学观点的探索》,台北:巨流图书公司, 1994,第50页。
〔44〕Robert Redfield, “Primitive Law. ”in Paul Bohannan, ed. , Law and Warfare: S tudies in the Anthropology of Conflict, New York: The Natural History Press , 1967, p. 22.
〔45〕Austin Sarat & Thomas R. Kearns, Law in the Dom ains of Culture, Ann Arbor: The University ofMichigan Press, 1998, p. 2.
〔46〕Austin Sarat & Thomas R. Kearns, Law in the Dom ains of Culture, Ann Arbor: The University ofMichigan Press, 1998, p. 3.
〔47〕Austin Sarat & Thomas R. Kearns, Law in the Dom ains of Culture, Ann Arbor: The University ofMichigan Press, 1998, p. 3.
〔48〕Robert J. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race, London: Routledge, 1995, p. 31.
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〔50〕James Clifford, The Predicam ent of Culture: Twentieth2Century Ethnography, L iterature, and A rt, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988, pp. 338, 323.
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〔52〕Clifford Geertz, Local Know ledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books , 1983, p. 184.
〔53〕PatriciaWilliams, The A lchem y of Race and R ights. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.
〔54〕Susan Silbey, “Making a Place for a CulturalAnalysis of Law, ”Law and Social Inquiry. N o17 (1992) , p. 47.
〔55〕Peter Fitzpatrick, TheMythology of Modern Law, London: Routledge , 1992.
〔56〕EdwardW. Said, Culture and Im perialism, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.
〔57〕Peter Fitzpatrick, TheMythology of Modern Law, London: Routledge , 1992, pp. 107 - 109.
〔58〕Peter Fitzpatrick, TheMythology of Modern Law, London: Routledge , 1992.
〔59〕Max Gluckman, Politics, Law and R itual in Tribal Society, Oxford: Basil Blackwell , 1965, pp. xviii2xix.
〔60〕Paul Bohannan , “Preface. ”In Paul Bohannan, Justice and Judgm ent am ong the Tiv, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1989 /1957.
〔61〕参阅: Paul Bohannan, 1989, p. xii.
〔62〕Paul Bohannan,“Preface. ”In Paul Bohannan, Justice and Judgm ent am ong the Tiv, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1989 /1957, p. xii.
〔63〕Laura Nader, “The Ethnography of Law”. Am erican Anthropologist. 67 ( 6) (1965) , Part 2, ( Special issue ) ; Laura Nader, Law in Culture and Society. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company , 1969.
〔64〕Carol J. Greenhouse, Praying for Justice: Faith, O rder, and Comm unity in an Am erican Town, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1986, pp. 27 - 28.
〔65〕Paul Bohannan, “Preface. ”In Paul Bohannan, Justice and Judgm ent am ong the Tiv, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1989 /1957, p. xi.
〔66〕Paul Bohannan, “Preface. ”In Paul Bohannan, Justice and Judgm ent am ong the Tiv, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1989 /1957.
〔67〕Robert Redfield, “Primitive Law. ”in PaulBohannan, ed. , Law andWarfare: S tudies in theAnthropology of Conflict, New York: The Natural History Press, 1967, pp. 3 - 5.
〔68〕M Bronislaw alinoswski, “Introduction”, in H. Ian Hogbin, Law and O rder in Polynesia, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934.
〔69〕Robert Redfield, “Primitive Law. ”in PaulBohannan, ed. , Law andWarfare: S tudies in theAnthropology of Conflict. New York: The Natural History Press, 1967, p. 4.
〔70〕William Seagle, “Primitive Law and ProfessorMalinowski, ”Am erican Anthropologist Vol. 39 (1937) , p. 285.
〔71〕Robert Redfield, “Primitive Law. ”in PaulBohannan, ed. , Law andWarfare: S tudies in theAnthropology of Conflict. New York: The Natural History Press, 1967.
〔72〕William Graham Sumner, Folkways: A S tudy of The Sociological Im portance of Usages, Manners, Custom s, Mores, and Morals. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1906, p. 70.
〔73〕Seagle, William, “Primitive Law and ProfessorMalinowski, ”Am erican Anthropologist Vol. 39 (1937) , p. 280.
〔74〕George E. Marcus andMichaelM. J. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experim entalMom ent in the Hum an Sciences. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986, p. x.
〔75〕Pierre Bourdieu,Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, p. 96.
〔76〕Marshall Sahlins, HistoricalMetaphors and Mythical Realities: S tructure in the Early History of the Sandw ich Islands Kingdom. Ann Arbor: University ofMichigan Press, 1981, p. 8.