自 18 世纪和 19 世纪始,接着在 20 世纪及其后,这类理论层出不穷。它们关注是否存在造成社会差异的某些要素,以及这些要素的得或失能否解释一个社会的“变化”?另外,这些要素的确认必须建立在观察和反思的基础上,应弄清公认理论赖以建立的那些社会具备什么,其他出现“差异”的社会不具备什么?这样,这些理论不仅能解释差异,也能预示,当这些“他类”( other )社会获得或失去某些要素,并变得和公认理论赖以建立的社会越来越像时,差异是如何变小或消失的。我们可以称此类研究为“公认理论的发展性扩展”( developmental extension of received theory )。
在大众社会里,大众传媒的传播方式使得知名度加速扩散。在这种社会里,公众承认( public recognition )使名声成为像金钱一样的大众爱物。公众承认的方式多种多样,包括证词和为某人举办酒宴、荣誉头衔、荣誉勋章、殊荣奖、服务证书、以及各式各样的典礼,它们中没有一个涉及到物质经济回报。这样,一个社会团体中的承认会像金钱一样超越特定的社会网络,成为广泛流通的资产。
上述类型的讨论认为,经济和社会地位两者都是很有意义的生存指标,而且二者共同构成了理性选择的基础。为了避免听起来似乎这两种理性是一个连续统中处于两极的价值观,或者这两种理性是互相排斥的(一个非此即彼的命题),我必须补充的是,从没有理论或经验理由能证明,这二者是对立的。我们认为,交易交换和关系交换是互补的,并且在一定的条件下相互促进。在理想状态下,一个特定的关系既能带来交易收益,又能带来关系收益。它能为互动双方带来交易利益,而且,双方都会积极宣传对方群体对个人利益的贡献,这样也增加了彼此的社会资本。在这种情况下,我们可以说,关系和交易两者是一个同构效用函数( isomorphic utility function )。随着个人和互动群体的生存能力都得到了提高,这个同构效用函数又促进了两个行动者间的交换。在理想化的条件下,两种理性共存、互补、互动。
最后,不是所有的企业都会在职位招募中表现出这样的差别。企业对劳动分工以及对不同职位的要求程度受到宏观环境和企业内制度结构的影响。例如,对市场中的企业而言,该市场的相对竞争程度会是一个影响因素。我们可以推论,在某些市场中,企业和组织几乎不参与公开性竞争(如,高度组织化或属于计划再分配制度中的公共部门、企业内部的劳动力市场),根据不同职位的具体要求(对特定资本的要求)来进行的人职匹配( matching of occupant and position )可能更松散。这样,职位招募及分配在社会资本上的要求差异不大。在其它部门中(如内外部招募要求相同、组织化程度较低的私有企业),市场竞争越激烈,企业就对劳动分工越敏感,即每个职位要求特定的能力和资本。因此,我们要根据不同的职位要求来考虑不同的社会资本。这些考虑因素可能有政治、社会、文化属性。总之,企业对劳动分工和人员职位分配中社会资本的敏感程度受到外部环境和企业内部市场制约条件的影响。我称之为敏感度假设( sensitivity hypothesis )。
一群社会学家,包括 Yang-chih Fu 、 Gina Lai 、 Chih-jou Chen 和我,正在致力于关于社会资本的第二项研究。我们研究中国社会中的婚宴(例如,台湾和香港)。从理论上说,婚宴是一个陈列社会资本的场合。即社会资本不仅可用于具体目的(如找工作),同时也可用来展示某人的社会地位。这种展示不仅确定了个人的自身地位,也确定了社会网络中其他成员的地位。通过在一个特定的场合,尤其在公开场合里,拉上某个或某些地位更高的社会关系,个人可以提高自己在其他社会成员心目中的地位。
[ 2 ] Blaug, Mark. 1985. Economic Theory in Respect .4th Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.689.
[ 3 ] Lin,Nan. 1989. “ Measuring Depressive Sympotomatology in China. ”Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177(3, March): 121-31.
[ 4 ] Lin, Nan and Gina lai. 1995. “ Urban Stress in China. ” Social Science and Medicine, 41(8): 1131-45.
[ 5 ] Lin, Nan and Wen Xie. 1988. “ Occupational Prestige in Urban China. ”American Journal of Sociology .93(4):793-832; Tsai, Shu-ling and Hei-Yuan Chiu. 1993. “ Educational Attainment In Taiwan: Comparisons of Ethnic Groups. ”Proceedings of the National Science Council, Part C: Humanities and Social Science ,3(2); Bian , Yanjie.1994. “ Guanxi and the Allocation of Jobs in Urban China. ” The China Quarterly , 140:971-99. Lin, Nan and Xiaolan Ye. 1997. “ Revisiting Social Support: Integration of Its Dimensions. ” Presented at the International Conference on Life Events/Stress, Social Support and Mental Health: Cross-cross Perspectives, June 17-19, Taipei, Taiwan.
[ 6 ] Lin, Nan and Yanjie Bian. 1991. “ Getting Ahead in Urban China. ”American Journal of Sociology, 97(3,November): 657-88. Bian, Yejian. 1994. Work and Inequality in Urban China. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Bian, Yejian.1995. “ China: Getting a Job in a web of Guanxi. ” InNetworks in the Global village, edited by B. Wellman. Boulder, Co: Westview.
[ 7 ] Granovetter, Mark. 1973. “ The Strength of Weak Ties. ” American Journal of Sociology, 78:1360-80; Granovetter, Mark.1974. Getting a Job. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[8] Homans, George C. 1950. The Human Group. NY: Harcourt, Brace; Lazarsfeld,Paul F. and Robert K. Merton. 1954. “ Friendship as social Process: A Substantive and Methodological Analysis. ” pp. 298-348 in The Varied Sociology of Paul F. Lazarsfeld, edited by P. L. Kendall. NY: Columbia University Press.
[ 9 ] Lin, Nan. 1982. “ Social Resources and Instrumental Action. ” pp. 131-45 in Social Structure and Network Analysis, edited by P. V. Marsden and N. Lin. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
[ 10 ] Bian, Yanjie .1997. “ Bringing Strong Ties Back In: Indirect Connection, Bridges, and Job Search in China. ” American Sociology Review , 62(3, June): 366-85.
[ 11 ] Lin, Nan. 2001. Social Capital: A Theory of Structure and Action. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, Chapter 9.
[ 12 ] Ledenva, Alena. 1998. Ruassia ’ s Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking, and Informal Exchange . New York: Cambridge University Press.
[ 13 ] Fei, Xiaotong. 1947/1992. From the Soil. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; King, Ambross Yeo-chi. 1982/1988. “ Analysis of Renqing in Interpersonal Relations (Renqi Guanxi Zhong Renqing Zhi Fensi ). ” pp. 319-45 inPsychology of the Chinese (zhongguren de xinli),edited by Kou-shu Yang. Taipei, Taiwan: Guiguan Press; Hwang, Kwang-kuo. 1987. “ Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game. ” American Journal of Sociology, 92(4): 944-74,4;Bian, Yanjie.1994. “ Guanxi and the Allocation of Jobs in Urban China. ” The China Quarterly, 140:971-99.
[ 14 ] Simmel, Georg (trans. And edited by Kurt H. Wolff). 1950. The Sociology of Georg Simmel. Glencoe,I11.:Free Press.
[ 15 ] Weber, Max. 1947. The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.111-115.
[ 16 ] 见霍曼斯对将基本社会行为看成理性行为的反驳( Homans, George Caspar. 1961. Social Behavior: Its Elementary forms. NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., pp.80-81 )。
[ 18 ] 社会地位的常见指标包括地位(职位)和威望(拥有职位者)(见 Lin, Nan.2001. Social Capital: A Theory of Structure and Action. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, Chapter 3 )。我采用了更普遍的术语:声望来涵盖以上两种,指一个行动者对另一个行动者产生的各方面的尊敬。
[ 19 ] Simmel, Georg. 1978. The Philophy of Money. London: Routledge.
[ 20 ] Coleman .1990. Foundation of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[ 22 ] Lin,Nan. 2001a. “ Guanxi: A Conceptual Analysis. ” pp. 153-66 in The Chinese Triangle of Mainland, Taiwan, and Hong Kong: Comparative Institutional Analysis, edited by Alvin So, Nan Lin and Dudley Poston. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
[ 23 ] Ledenva, Alena. 1998. Ruassia ’ s Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking, and Informal Exchange . New York: Cambridge University Press.
[ 24 ] Homans, George Caspar. 1961. Social Behavior: Its Elementary forms. NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
[ 25 ] Lin, Nan. 1989. “ Chinese Family Structure and Chinese Society. ”Bulletin of Sociology, 25: 467-87.
[ 26 ] Lin, Nan.2001. “ Guanxi: A Conceptual Analysis. ” pp. 153-66 in The Chinese Triangle of Mainland, Taiwan, and Hong Kong: Comparative Institutional Analysis, edited by Alvin So, Nan Lin and Dudley Poston. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
[ 27 ] 对原始群体来说,选择看起来更偏向关系理性,而非交易理性(孩子的财产继承,见 Lin, Nan. Social Capital: A Theory of Structure and Action. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, Chapter 8 )。
[ 28 ] See, for example, The Economist, December 6, 1997, “ Inside Story: Family Firms still Rules ” , and December 15, 2001, “ Slipped Disc ” on the family firms being the backbone of the German economy.